Searching for the New Behavioral Model in Energy Transition Age: Analyzing the Forward and Reverse Causal Relationships between Belief, Attitude, and Behavior in Nuclear Policy across Countries
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By Elisa Bustaffa 1, Olivia Curzio 1, * , Fabrizio Bianchi 1, Fabrizio Minichilli 1, Daniela Nuvolone 2, Davide Petri 2, 3, Giorgia Stoppa 2, 4, Fabio Voller 2 and Liliana Cori 1
Unit of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Cardiac, Thoracic, Vascular Sciences and Public Health, University of Padova, Via Loredan 18, 35131 Padova, Italy
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Geothermal fluids for electricity and heat production have long been exploited in the Mt. Amiata area (Tuscany, Italy). Public concern about the health impact of geothermal plants has been present from the outset. Several factors influence the way people perceive risk; therefore, the objective of the present research is to develop indicators of risk perception and assess indices differences in relation to some questionnaire variables. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in the Amiata area on 2029 subjects aged 18–77. From the questionnaire section about risk perception from environmental hazards, four indicators were developed and analysed. A total of 64% of the subjects considered the environmental situation to be acceptable or excellent, 32% serious but reversible, and 4% serious and irreversible; as the values of the various perception indicators increased, an upward trend was observed in the averages. Risk perception was higher among women and young people, and was associated with higher education. Those who smelled bad odours in their surroundings reported higher risk perception. Furthermore, risk perception was higher in four municipalities. The results represent the basis for further investigations to analyse the link among risk perception indicators, exposure parameters, and health status.
In recent years, interest in the exploitation of geothermal fluids has grown worldwide. Considered an important renewable energy, a doubling of geothermal electricity generation and a fivefold increase of geothermal heat has been planned for Europe in the next ten years [1]. Eighteen EU countries have included geothermal energy in their 2020 National Renewable Energy Action Plans: twelve countries consider both geothermal heat and electricity, while six consider only heat [2].
In Italy, all geothermal power plants in operation are located in Tuscany Region, the region that most of all represents Italian geothermal energy. The exploitation of this kind of energy began in the first half of the nineteenth century but in reality, historical sources have revealed that the heat of the earth and natural springs have been exploited since ancient times, at least for the entire first millennium BC by the Etruscan populations. Furthermore, these geothermal resources have proved to be among the most productive in the world [3, 4]. Starting with Larderello, which today houses the largest geothermal plant in Europe, over the decades the number of regional geothermal plants has grown to more than thirty. Most of the Tuscan geothermal energy comes from the heat that derives from the intrusion of a magmatic pluto under the volcanic complex of Mt. Amiata. There are many other areas with abundant geothermal resources in Italy, in regions such as Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Campania, Sicily and Emilia Romagna; however, areas external to Tuscany have almost no relevance as an impact in absolute terms on the Italian energy balance. Currently, 36 geothermal plants are distributed in the Provinces of Pisa, Siena and Grosseto and, in 2019, within an overall regional production of 16, 566 Gigawatt-Hour (GWh), the contribution of the geothermal power plants amounted to 5688 GWh, thus covering 34% of the regional electricity requirement [5] (Figure 1).
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Particularly, monitoring activities are conducted by the Geothermal Sector of the Regional Agency for Environmental Protection of Tuscany (ARPAT). All monitoring data are reported through annual reports (http://www.arpat.toscana.it/documentazione/report/report-geotermia/report-sul-monitoraggio-nelle-aree-geotermiche, accessed on 27 July 2022). Specifically, in 2019 no overruns of the emission limit values for the authorized parameters (mercury, hydrogen sulphide (H
The Regional Health Agency of Tuscany (Agenzia Regionale per la Sanità-ARS) is in charge of providing scientific support to policy makers by producing epidemiological studies on population health status and healthcare services. For several years ARS has been monitoring the health of the populations living in the Tuscan geothermal areas. The results of descriptive studies conducted by ARS in collaboration with the Institute of Clinical Physiology of the National Research Council of Pisa (IFC-CNR) [7, 8], have highlighted some mortality and hospitalization excesses in the Amiata area, in particular for liver and stomach cancers and respiratory diseases, using as a reference the rates observed in an area of 98 municipalities falling within a circle of 50 km radius pointing to the centroid of the area under study. The etiological study by Nuvolone et al. (2019), while confirming the excesses of mortality and hospitalization for respiratory diseases, also revealed a mortality risk decrease from ischemic heart diseases and cerebrovascular diseases in relation to high exposures (20–33 µg/m
It should be pointed out that Mt. Amiata area, as well as being characterized by a complex natural hydrogeological context, has been the focus of various anthropic activities over the decades. In fact, for about a century, there was an intense extraction of cinnabar, the sulphide from which mercury was obtained, and mercury industrial production, which is known for its negative impact on human health [8, 10].
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In recent years, several studies have been conducted on the health status of the Amiata communities [8, 9, 11]; during this period, public concerns about the health consequences of long-term geothermal energy exploitation were expressed through public statements, social media and traditional media dissemination, and participation in public conferences [1, 12]. In addition, attention has grown in consideration of national and European policies on renewable energy, which propose a growth in geothermal energy exploitation in Europe, as an alternative to the traditional fossil-fuelled plants [2, 13]. In this context, the centrality of citizen participation was highlighted [14], and both the public authorities in charge of health protection and the researchers involved in the Amiata area maintained a continuous relationship with local communities, citizens’ associations, and public administrators, in order to inform them about the activities and to involve them in the discussion of the research results.
The InVETTA project (Biomonitoring Survey and Epidemiological Evaluations for the Protection of Health in the Amiata Territories), performed by ARS, carried out a human biomonitoring study by collecting blood and urine samples from 2060 subjects and a questionnaire on habits, living and working environment, and clinical history, including a section on risk perception [15, 16]. This latter specific section of the questionnaire has been used in recent years to complement the human biomonitoring research with findings on the people involved, their attitudes towards risks and hazards, and sources of information in different parts of society [17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Particularly, here we are going to report and discuss results based on the InVETTA section questionnaire on risk perception. This work is based on the assumption that an analysis of risk perception and access to environmental information by various institutional and non-institutional actors in Amiata communities deserves specific interest in support of public policy, health promotion, environmental protection and citizen participation in territorial management. In fact, risk perception is relevant and related to risk communication, encompassing the level of awareness in a specific area, comprehension and history of the community itself, including the ability and willingness to deal with risk [22]. The direct participation of people and communities in polluted areas is increasingly appreciated and considered relevant to promote policies for anthropogenic risk mitigation and environmental sustainability. Experience has shown that improvements can be too slow and risk governance ineffective without direct citizen involvement, including a control and monitoring function [23]. Anthropogenic hazards seem to be more acceptable than natural hazards and are very related to social acceptance, knowledge, and awareness of risk [24]. Social acceptance is crucial to address shared solutions based on trust in public authorities [25]. Therefore, it is valuable to share the results of scientific investigations, understand population perceived risks and engage communities to achieve sustainable environmental and health protection measures
Particularly, monitoring activities are conducted by the Geothermal Sector of the Regional Agency for Environmental Protection of Tuscany (ARPAT). All monitoring data are reported through annual reports (http://www.arpat.toscana.it/documentazione/report/report-geotermia/report-sul-monitoraggio-nelle-aree-geotermiche, accessed on 27 July 2022). Specifically, in 2019 no overruns of the emission limit values for the authorized parameters (mercury, hydrogen sulphide (H
The Regional Health Agency of Tuscany (Agenzia Regionale per la Sanità-ARS) is in charge of providing scientific support to policy makers by producing epidemiological studies on population health status and healthcare services. For several years ARS has been monitoring the health of the populations living in the Tuscan geothermal areas. The results of descriptive studies conducted by ARS in collaboration with the Institute of Clinical Physiology of the National Research Council of Pisa (IFC-CNR) [7, 8], have highlighted some mortality and hospitalization excesses in the Amiata area, in particular for liver and stomach cancers and respiratory diseases, using as a reference the rates observed in an area of 98 municipalities falling within a circle of 50 km radius pointing to the centroid of the area under study. The etiological study by Nuvolone et al. (2019), while confirming the excesses of mortality and hospitalization for respiratory diseases, also revealed a mortality risk decrease from ischemic heart diseases and cerebrovascular diseases in relation to high exposures (20–33 µg/m
It should be pointed out that Mt. Amiata area, as well as being characterized by a complex natural hydrogeological context, has been the focus of various anthropic activities over the decades. In fact, for about a century, there was an intense extraction of cinnabar, the sulphide from which mercury was obtained, and mercury industrial production, which is known for its negative impact on human health [8, 10].
Bank & Tisch Auch Für Rollstahlfahrer Geeignet, Tische, Stadtmöbel
In recent years, several studies have been conducted on the health status of the Amiata communities [8, 9, 11]; during this period, public concerns about the health consequences of long-term geothermal energy exploitation were expressed through public statements, social media and traditional media dissemination, and participation in public conferences [1, 12]. In addition, attention has grown in consideration of national and European policies on renewable energy, which propose a growth in geothermal energy exploitation in Europe, as an alternative to the traditional fossil-fuelled plants [2, 13]. In this context, the centrality of citizen participation was highlighted [14], and both the public authorities in charge of health protection and the researchers involved in the Amiata area maintained a continuous relationship with local communities, citizens’ associations, and public administrators, in order to inform them about the activities and to involve them in the discussion of the research results.
The InVETTA project (Biomonitoring Survey and Epidemiological Evaluations for the Protection of Health in the Amiata Territories), performed by ARS, carried out a human biomonitoring study by collecting blood and urine samples from 2060 subjects and a questionnaire on habits, living and working environment, and clinical history, including a section on risk perception [15, 16]. This latter specific section of the questionnaire has been used in recent years to complement the human biomonitoring research with findings on the people involved, their attitudes towards risks and hazards, and sources of information in different parts of society [17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Particularly, here we are going to report and discuss results based on the InVETTA section questionnaire on risk perception. This work is based on the assumption that an analysis of risk perception and access to environmental information by various institutional and non-institutional actors in Amiata communities deserves specific interest in support of public policy, health promotion, environmental protection and citizen participation in territorial management. In fact, risk perception is relevant and related to risk communication, encompassing the level of awareness in a specific area, comprehension and history of the community itself, including the ability and willingness to deal with risk [22]. The direct participation of people and communities in polluted areas is increasingly appreciated and considered relevant to promote policies for anthropogenic risk mitigation and environmental sustainability. Experience has shown that improvements can be too slow and risk governance ineffective without direct citizen involvement, including a control and monitoring function [23]. Anthropogenic hazards seem to be more acceptable than natural hazards and are very related to social acceptance, knowledge, and awareness of risk [24]. Social acceptance is crucial to address shared solutions based on trust in public authorities [25]. Therefore, it is valuable to share the results of scientific investigations, understand population perceived risks and engage communities to achieve sustainable environmental and health protection measures
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